Concept Summary Chapter 6

The completion of the Copernican revolution with Newton's theory of universal gravitation not only made possible magnificent discoveries, but also produced a world view or cosmology midway between the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmology and that produced by twentieth-century physics.

The Aristotelian-Ptolemaic universe was a purposeful, goal-directed universe. Events such as planetary motion were understood in terms of a striving to fulfill a natural purpose. Thus, this universe was conceived of in terms of natural motions, natural places, and a natural hierarchy. God played an important "intimate" role in this universe; His thoughts (purposes) were the continual, sustaining cause of all motion. For instance, because from God's perspective circular motion is the most perfect motion, it is a natural motion, and the circular motion of a planet needs no further explanation.

Shifting the center of motion from the Earth to the Sun, and making planets revolve in elliptical rather than circular orbits, produced shocking implications for understanding humankind's place in the universe and God's relationship to His creation. New scientific, philosophical, and religious concepts were needed to place these implications in an understandable context. If no special motions existed, then a theory was needed to explain why the planets were attracted to the Sun and did not fly off into space; if the universe was to be understood as a mathematically plotted physical machine, then a new understanding of thought and values was needed; if God was not participating in the universe in the same intimate way, a new conception of His special role was needed. With help from the revival of atomism and the conception of a greater God, work by Galileo, Descartes, and Newton completed the Copernican revolution.

As the scientific details (inertial motion, universal gravitation, and the mathematization of nature) were worked out, a new epistemological, metaphysical, and religious world view was constructed. The Newtonian-Copernican cosmology that replaced the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic was a God-initiated, machinelike universe full of material things in motion; all motions could be plotted mathematically in terms of precise and (at least from God's point of view) unique (absolute) times and locations. This cosmology was coupled with a new perspective on the role of scientific explanation. The success of the concept of universal gravitation raised the question of the nature of gravity. Gravity seemed to "act at a distance" instantaneously with no physical contact between gravitating bodies. Newton's response was to assert that it was not the business of scientists to worry about the ultimate nature of things. Rather, the job of a natural scientist was to be concerned only with what can be observed and to mathematically map empirical relationships. A natural scientist need not waste time on metaphysical hypotheses.

Nevertheless, Newton contributed extensively to the metaphysical foundations of this new science. That the universe is assumed to be a machine is a metaphysical postulate, one in fact which justifies the attention to only the empirical surface details of the machine. If it is believed that the universe is a perfect deterministic, clocklike machine, then there is no need to worry about its inner mechanism; the surface behavior of the machine is all that is needed for practical interaction with the machine. Also, because any practical measurement of space and time, an essential part of the new physics, required a relative measurement of space and time, a metaphysical postulate was needed to preserve the objectivity of space and time. If a moving object did not have one place and one time to be in, paradox and confusion seemed to result. According to Newton, the infinite theater of God's creation required an absolute, celestial perspective, otherwise it would be impossible to keep track of all the motions in the universe. Common sense, the new science, and religious considerations all required that at least God would have this perspective.

Another problem concerned the role of thought and ideas in this new universe. If reality could now be completely reduced to the primary motions of material objects, then thoughts, ideas, feelings, and values became secondary, miragelike qualities. In addition to heightening the confusion of the role of God and religion, this conclusion seem to undercut the validity of science as well: The thoughts of scientists would have the same subjective status of all secondary qualities. If thoughts were not real, how could scientists have thoughts about the universe that were true? Science itself would be just a subjective perspective.

A famous metaphysical and epistemological solution to this problem was Descartes' mind-body dualism. A world of thought and spirit exits independent of, but parallel to, the material world of the natural scientist. This parallel mental realm preserved not only traditional concerns of ultimate meaning, but alsob scientific certainty and objectivity, because a harmonious correspondence must exist between the God-placed, mathematical thoughts of scientists and the motions of the physical world. God gave us certain innate thoughts and abilities and then created a physical universe to match these thoughts. We are special once again.

Ultimately, however, the success of Newtonianism implied a stronger emphasis on the importance of the external material world. Like looking through a thick pane of glass, the material world is independent of us, and our thoughts and values do not affect this reality. At best we are good spectators when our thoughts and values stay consistent with this now dignified, glorified creation of God.

Below is comparison and contrast of the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmology (the view of the universe and all life prior to the Copernican Revolution) and the Newtonian-Copernican cosmology.

A-P Cosmology N-C Cosmology

Goal-directed, purposeful (teleological causation). Everything has a purpose directed by God. Heavy objects naturally go down. Light gaseous objects go up. Planets are not physical places but their purpose is to revolve in perfect circles.
In a very real sense, the entire universe is alive. Each object has a kind of consciousness with a desire to fulfill its Godly purpose. Planets move in circles, not like cogs in a machine programmed to move this way. They move this way, because they want to! They have a desire to fulfill God's thoughts and purposes.
The universe is a vast, precise physical machine. The planets are now seen as physical places.
The whole universe is now full of dead, physical objects. They move around like billiard balls in a gigantic game of pool, moving according to natural laws of nature and the initial impetus of God starting the universe. God starts the universe the same way someone might start a pool game. He makes a big break and then just lets the balls roll without His continued intervention. Or, like turning a washing machine on -- it is a machine operating the way God has planned, but on its own mechanically.

Natural motions, places, hierarchy (up and down).
Down is a special place for heavy objects. Up is a special place for spiritual objects. Circular motion is a natural motion.

The hierarchy in the heavens justifies a hierarchy on Earth. People are not equal. The Pope is higher than all humans. He is closer to God. Therefore, God wants Him to have power over Kings and Queens. A King though would be closer to God and hence have power over average people. It was his "divine right." People would be born into classes, higher or lower. Men were closer to God than women! To this day women cannot be priests in the Catholic Church.
No up and down, no special places; the universe is possibly infinite.
If there is no up-and-down, what would happen to a heavy object out in space? If it were very far from any other object, it would not fall anywhere. If the object was not moving, it would stay at rest. If it was moving, it would continue to move forever in the direction of its initial motion unless an outside force acted on it. Its (inertial) motion would not need a continual push as on Earth (see discussion below).

Philosophers and theologians begin to raise the issue: "Are not all people equal in the eyes of God?"

God is transcendent, but very intimate with His creation: His thoughts are "in" the universe. Everything is striving to follow God's plan. His thoughts and purposes actually make things move as they do. God thinks and then things move striving to obey His thoughts. A heavy object falls because God wants all heavy objects down. So any particular heavy object will want to obey God and go down.
A planet moves in a circle and does not fall down. It does not fall down because it is not a heavy physical thing. It moves in a circle because God want's it to move in a circle. The planet "strives" to obey God.
God is transcendent but detached. He lets His creation move on its own, obeying physical laws such as gravity.
He creates the machine and then starts it. But He does not push anything along. He becomes, in the excellent description of a former student, the Maytag repairman of the universe. The machine is so good, He does not need to be involved.

A heavy object on Earth falls down because of a physical law, gravity.

The Earth though, and all the planets, are heavy objects but they don't fall down. They move in elliptical orbits because of their own motion and the gravitational attraction of the sun.

Values are objective and "in" the universe, just like facts. To know what is right or wrong, we simply find out God's purpose. Men had a natural purpose and women had a natural purpose. So, it would be absolutely and objectively wrong for a woman to try to do what was solely a man's purpose. Values become a puzzle, possibly an illusion, as may be all human thoughts.
Values are not like hard facts, so what are they? A need for new ethical theories arises. Democratic values emerge in the age of enlightenment.

Goal-directed, purposeful (teleological causation). Everything has a purpose directed by God. Heavy objects naturally go down. Light gaseous objects go up. Planets are not physical places but their purpose is to revolve in perfect circles. In a very real sense, the entire universe is alive. Each object has a kind of consciousness with a desire to fulfill its Godly purpose. Planets move in circles, not like cogs in a machine programmed to move this way. They move this way, because they want to! They have a desire to fulfill God's thoughts and purposes.	The universe is a vast, precise physical machine. The planets are now seen as physical places. The whole universe is now full of dead, physical objects. They move around like billiard balls in a gigantic game of pool, moving according to natural laws of nature and the initial impetus of God starting the universe. God starts the universe the same way someone might start a pool game. He makes a big break and then just lets the balls roll without His continued intervention. Or, like turning a washing machine on -- it is a machine operating the way God has planned, but on its own mechanically.
Natural motions, places, hierarchy (up and down). Down is a special place for heavy objects. Up is a special place for spiritual objects. Circular motion is a natural motion. The hierarchy in the heavens justifies a hierarchy on Earth. People are not equal. The Pope is higher than all humans. He is closer to God. Therefore, God wants Him to have power over Kings and Queens. A King though would be closer to God and hence have power over average people. It was his "divine right." People would be born into classes, higher or lower. Men were closer to God than women! To this day women cannot be priests in the Catholic Church.	No up and down, no special places; the universe is possibly infinite. If there is no up-and-down, what would happen to a heavy object out in space? If it were very far from any other object, it would not fall anywhere. If the object was not moving, it would stay at rest. If it was moving, it would continue to move forever in the direction of its initial motion unless an outside force acted on it. Its (inertial) motion would not need a continual push as on Earth (see discussion below). Philosophers and theologians begin to raise the issue: "Are not all people equal in the eyes of God?"
God is transcendent, but very intimate with His creation: His thoughts are "in" the universe. Everything is striving to follow God's plan. His thoughts and purposes actually make things move as they do. God thinks and then things move striving to obey His thoughts. A heavy object falls because God wants all heavy objects down. So any particular heavy object will want to obey God and go down. A planet moves in a circle and does not fall down. It does not fall down because it is not a heavy physical thing. It moves in a circle because God want's it to move in a circle. The planet "strives" to obey God.	God is transcendent but detached. He lets His creation move on its own, obeying physical laws such as gravity. He creates the machine and then starts it. But He does not push anything along. He becomes, in the excellent description of a former student, the Maytag repairman of the universe. The machine is so good, He does not need to be involved. A heavy object on Earth falls down because of a physical law, gravity. The Earth though, and all the planets, are heavy objects but they don't fall down. They move in elliptical orbits because of their own motion and the gravitational attraction of the sun.
Values are objective and "in" the universe, just like facts. To know what is right or wrong, we simply find out God's purpose. Men had a natural purpose and women had a natural purpose. So, it would be absolutely and objectively wrong for a woman to try to do what was solely a man's purpose.	Values become a puzzle, possibly an illusion, as may be all human thoughts. Values are not like hard facts, so what are they? A need for new ethical theories arises. Democratic values emerge in the age of enlightenment.