1 For more information about the specific events of 4 May 1919 see any of the following sources: Y.C. Wang, Chinese Intellectuals and the West, 1872-1949 (North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 306-361; Vera Schwarcz, The Chinese Enlightenment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May fourth Movement of 1919 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 12-54; Wang Shih-han, Wu ssu yün tung chien shih (Peiching: Chung kuo she hui ti hsüeh ch'u ch'u pan, 1979), 106-120; Chow Tse-tsung, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), 84-116.
2 Singapore Free Press, 6 June 1919, as quoted in Ts'ui Kui-ch'iang, "Hai hsia chih min ti hua jen tui wu ssu yün tung ti fan hsiang," Nan yang hsüeh pao 20 (1965-66): 17-18. All translations in this paper are my own unless otherwise noted.
3 This account of the events of 19 June 1919 is taken from the Straits Times, 20-23 June 1919 and Ts'ui Kui-ch'iang, "Hai hsia chih min ti hua jen tui wu ssu yün tung ti fan hsiang," 13-18.
4 Straits Times, 20 June 1919.
5 There are several interpretations and approaches to the May Fourth Period and its connection to the New Culture Movement. The best known interpretation, with its encyclopedic coverage, is undoubtedly Chow Tse-tsung's, The May Fourth Movement. Other notable accounts include: Arif Dirlik, "Ideology and Organization in the May Fourth Movement: Some Problems in the Intellectual Historiography of the May Fourth Period," Republican China 12.1 (Nov 1986): 3-19; Joseph Chen, The May Fourth Movement in Shanghai (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1971); Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977); Vera Schwarcz, "Remapping May Fourth: Between Nationalism and Enlightenment," Republican China 12, no. 1 (Nov 1986): 20-35; Vera Schwarcz, The Chinese Enlightenment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May Fourth Movement of 1919; Laurence Schneider, Ku Chieh-kang and China's New History: Nationalism and the Quest for Alternative Traditions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Hu Wen-pen, ed., Wu ssu yün tung tsai Shan tung tzu liao hsüan chi (Chi nan: Shan tung jen min chu pan she, 1980); T'ien chin li shih po wu kuan, Nan kai ta hsueh li shih hsi, comps., Wu ssu yün tung tsai T'ien chin li shih tzu liao hsüan chi (T'ien-chin: T'ien chin jen min chu pan she, 1979).
6 James Clifford quoting William Safran in "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology 9, no. 3 (1994): 304.
7 Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 276.
8 Clifford suggests that "we should attempt to think of cultures not as organically unified or traditionally continuous but... as negotiated, present processes." James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 273.
10 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994), 28.
12 Wang Gungwu, Community and Nation: Essays on Southeast Asia and the Chinese (Singapore: Heinemann Educational Books, 1981), and Wang Gungwu, China and the Chinese Overseas (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), 22-40.
13 For information regarding this period and the changing audience of Singapore's newspapers see Chen Mong Hock, The Early Chinese Newspapers of Singapore, 1881-1912 (Singapore: University of Malaya Press, 1967), 54-110.
14 Ts'ui Kui-ch'iang, Hsin chia po hua wen pao k'an yü pao jen (Hsin chia po: Huo hua wen hsin wen yeh chi chin tsan chü, 1993), 15.
15 "Hsing chia po hua wen pao yeh chien shih," Hsing chou jih pao, 4 October 1969.
16 He Shu-min, Hsin chia po tsui tsao ti hua wen jih pao-le pao, 1881-1932 (Hsin chia po: Nan yang pien i suo ch'u pan, 1978), 15-16.
17 For more information on the Le Pao's circulation see Chen Mong Hock, 39.
20 Mo Yimei, Local Colour in Malayan Chinese Fiction: A New Approach, 1920-1937 (Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1992), 25.
22 Ts'ui Kui-ch'iang, Pao k'an yü pao jen, 15; and Cheng, 39.
23 Fang Hsiu, Ma hua hsin wen hsüeh shih kao, vol. 1 (Hsin chia po: Hsing chou shih chieh shu chü yu hsien kung ssu, 1960), 9-16.
24 Shih Ko, "Nan feng chih ko," Nan Feng, 15 July 1925. Reprinted in Fang Hsiu, vol. 1, 50-53.
25 Yan, "Nan yang yü wen i," Huang Tao 1 April 1927. Reprinted in Fang Hsiu, comp. Ma hua hsin wen hsüeh ta hsi, vol. 1 (Singapore: Hsing chou shih chieh shu chü yu hsien kung ssu, 1972), 119-121. Hereafter, Fang's Ma hua hsin wen hsüeh ta hsi will be cited as "MHTH."
27 Fang Hsiu, vol. 1; and Cheng Wen-hui, 46-55.
28 Ts'ui Kui-ch'iang, Pao k'an yü pao jen, 29.
29 Tan Yew Soon and Soh Yew Peng, The Development of Singapore's Modern Media Industry (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1994), 14.
31 Tseng Sheng-t'i often wrote under the pen names Ta Chi and Ting Lang. His work from the Wen I Chou K'an is included in Fang's MHTH.
32 Fang Hsiu, vol. 1; and Cheng Wen-hui, 46-55.
33 Ts'ui Kui-chiang, Pao k'an yü pao jen, 31.
35 K'ang Chi-fu, Hu Wen-hu chuan (Hsiang-kang: Lung men wen hua shih yeh kung ssu, 1984), 56-57.
38 Ts'ui Kui-chiang, Pao k'an yü pao jen, 32.
40 For examples of Mao Ch'eng-po's work see Fang's MHTH.
41 Fang Hsiu, vol. 1, 173-177.
42 Straits Times, 27 November 1913.
43 See, for example, the Straits Times editorial of 21 May 1912.
44 Straits Times, 15 May 1912.
45 Straits Times, 17 June 1919
46 Straits Times, 21 June 1919.
47 Straits Times, 20 June 1919.
48 Straits Times, 21 June 1919.
49 C.M. Turnbull, Dateline Singapore: 150 Years of the Straits Times (Singapore: Singapore Press Holdings, 1995), 157.
50 Turnbull, 87. The daily rate for the Times was ten cents while the Tribune was only five cents.
53 Chou P'i-ch'eng, "Ch'uan chung chih i yeh," Shang yü tsa chih, 25 April 1925. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 3, 64-69.
54 Fang Hsiu, Ma hua hsin wen hsüeh shih kao, 14-15.
55 Lin Tu-pu, "Hsing fu yü nu li," Hsin kuo min tsa chih, 20 September 1922. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 6, 4.
56 C.T. Hsia, A History of Modern Chinese Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), 97-100.
57 Ch'eng Li, "Kuan yü hsin hsing wen i," Yeh Lin, 1 March 1929. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 1, 60.
58 Yu Yu, "Kuan yü wen i ti fang hsiang," Yeh p'a, 6 April 1930. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 1, 73.
59 Ch'en Chia-fang, "K'u," Hsiao shuo shih chieh, 3 January 1925. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 3, 51.
60 Tseng Sheng-t'i, "Sheng yü tsui," Wen i chou k'an, 29 January 1929. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 3, 465-472.
61 See, for example, Wong Seng-tong, "The Identity of Malaysian-Chinese Writers," Wong Yoon Wah and Horst Pastoors, eds., Tung nan ya hua wen wen hsüeh / Chinese Literature in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Singapore Association of Writers, 1988) 110-126.
62 Yan, "Nan yang yü wen i," Huang Tao, 1 April 1927. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 1, 119-121.
64 Ssu Shih, "Shuo shuo nan yang ti wen i shu," Huang Tao, 18 October 1927. Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 1, 122-123.
65 See, for example, Wang Jun-hua, "Lun hsin chia po hua wen wen hsüeh fa chan chieh tuan yü fang hsiang," Wong Yoon Wah and Horst Pastoors, eds., Tung nan ya hua wen wen hsüeh / Chinese Literature in Southeast Asia, 56-66; and Wong Yoon Wah and Wong Meng Voon, "The Changing Identity of the Chinese as seen in Singapore-Chinese Literature," Theresa Chong Cariño, ed., Social Change and Southeast Asian Chinese Literature (Philippines: De La Salle University and Philippine Association for Chinese Studies, 1989), 65-78.
66 Pan Lan (Ch'en Lian-ch'ing), Yeh Lin, 1928. Reprinted and translated in Mo Yimei, 47.
67 Wang T'an, "Yü nan yü tan mi," Li, no. 53 (March 1928). Reprinted in MHTH, vol. 3, 191.
68 Stuart Hall, "Cultural Identity and Diaspora," in Colonial Discourse and Post Colonial Theory, ed. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (Cambridge: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994), 394.
69 James Clifford has used this approach in his article "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology 9, no. 3: 302-338.