Fouled Out
How Gender Stereotypes Affect
Women in Sports
A Bibliography Plan
Lori Ann Saeki
4 December 2003
Dr. Diane Nahl
LIS 601
Click here for a printable version of this bibliography plan
Table of Contents
Library of Congress Subject Headings
Browsing
the Stacks
Voyager
Academic
Search Premier
Sociological
Abstracts
PsycINFO
Physical
Education Index
PAIS
International
Studies
on Women and Gender Abstracts
Digital
Dissertations
Ingenta
JSTOR
LexisNexis
Academic
Google.com
Appendix:
Source and Subject Heading Relevance
Feminist Research
History
Sexual
Stereotypes
Stereotypes
in the Media
Women
in Coaching and Administrative Positions
Women’s
Sports Advocacy
Since
the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, opportunities for
women and girls in organized sports have exploded. Still, more than 30 years
later, most American professional women’s sports leagues fold within a few
years of existence or struggle to keep their athletes playing, and collegiate
male athletes outnumber collegiate female athletes 212,140 to 155,5131.
This bibliography will try to identify research on how gender stereotypes
influence the participation of women in sports as fans, athletes, coaches, and
administrators. This bibliography is designed for students, particularly those
in women’s studies or American studies, who do research on women’s
participation in sports for a class paper or for their own enrichment.
This bibliography concentrates on research
published since 1990. As a starting point for research on women in sports, and
to find citations for research published prior to 1990, I recommend consulting
Helen Lenskyj’s Women, Sport and Physical Activity: Research and
Bibliography2.
The style manual used for citations in this
bibliography is Kate L. Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Term Papers,
Theses and Dissertations3.
Library
of Congress Subject Headings
My
first step was to go to the print listings of the Library of Congress Subject
Headings4 to look up controlled vocabulary that would help me find
books related to my topic. I picked up volume five to look up the general
category SPORTS and found under it the narrower terms DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS,
FEMINISM AND SPORTS, GAYS AND SPORTS, HOMOPHOBIA IN SPORTS, LESBIANS AND
SPORTS, SEX DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS, and STEREOTYPE IN SPORTS. I also decided
to take down MASS MEDIA AND SPORTS as a possible subject heading.
In
addition to these subject headings, which were listed as narrower terms under
the heading SPORTS, I also took down the separate categories SPORTS —
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS and SPORTS FOR WOMEN to test as search terms. I also saw
that there was a subject heading for SPORTS GYNECOLOGY and decided to try that
as well, partly out of curiosity, but also because many of the gender
stereotypes that surround sports have a biological basis, whether or not they
are true.
I
also decided to pull volume one to look under athletics in the interest of
completeness, but there were no Library of Congress Subject Headings under
athletics.
Resources
on this topic can be found by browsing in the following Library of Congress
call number areas.
GV557 - 1198.995 — SPORTS
GV709 — 709.18 — SPORTS FOR WOMEN
HQ75 - 76.8 — HOMOSEXUALITY. LESBIANISM
HQ1101 - 2030.7 — WOMEN. FEMINISM
P87 - 96 — COMMUNICATION. MASS MEDIA
In
the UH Voyager catalog5, I first did a subject search for SPORTS FOR
WOMEN. This returned 44 titles and 39 subcategories, some of which also had
promising results. Promising subcategories included SPORTS FOR WOMEN — LAW AND
LEGISLATION, which returned the Straight Talk video6, and SPORTS FOR WOMEN — SOCIAL
ASPECTS, which returned Jennifer Hargreaves’ Heroines of Sport7, which took a global perspective, looking
at different cultures’ gender beliefs and how they affect women in sports.
Another category which returned multiple entries was SEX DISCRIMINATION IN
SPORTS, which returned 11 entries and 11 subcategories, primarily of geographic
subdivisions. This category returned Mariah Burton Nelson’s Are We Winning
Yet?8 which looked at the
history of women’s experiences in sport, and Celia Brackenridge’s Spoilsports9 which concentrated on how sexual harassment
and sexual abuse affect women athletes and women coaches. MASS MEDIA AND SPORTS
also returned four entries, two of which dealt with the media’s portrayal of
gender in sports, including the Women, Media and Sport10 compilation (which was also cross-listed
under SEX DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS).
Several
of the other subject headings returned limited but useful results.
DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS returned three entries, two focusing on race, and Sports
in America from the Opposing
Viewpoints series11, which included a chapter on sexism in sports.
This book however was also listed under SEX DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS. FEMINISM
AND SPORTS returned just one entry, Michael Messner’s Taking the Field12. At first I thought it curious that the
only text under the subject heading FEMINISM AND SPORTS was written by a man,
but discovered the book provided a good feminist analysis of the social
construction of gender and how it affects even the youngest girls in sports.
HOMOPHOBIA IN SPORTS also returned just one entry, Pat Griffin’s Strong
Women, Deep Closets13. The
citation for book was also cross-listed under LESBIAN ATHLETES, but when I
clicked on that link, this book by Griffin was the only one listed under that
subject heading.
Several
of the subject headings I chose did not prove particularly useful. GAYS AND
SPORTS and LESBIANS AND SPORTS both returned one entry each, but neither
appeared to offer serious analysis of gender or sexuality stereotypes. SPORTS —
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS appeared promising when it returned 10 entries and two
subcategories, but these books dealt with race or the social importance of
sports, and not so much with gender. STEREOTYPE IN SPORTS returned just one
entry about race, and there were no entries listed under SPORTS GYNECOLOGY.
In
Academic Search Premier14 I first tried a keyword search for
"women" AND "sports" AND "stereotype." This
returned 24 citations, including the article on "The Framing of Sexual
Difference"15, and most of these articles could have been added
to the bibliography. From these citations, I clicked through on the descriptors
WOMEN ATHLETES and STEREOTYPING, but both returned several hundred entries,
with the majority of them not focusing on the topic of this bibliography. I
then clicked on the link to the subjects list and did a relevancy ranked search
for "sports women" (without the quotation marks), and found the
descriptor SPORTS FOR WOMEN, which had 237 periodical references and 68
newspaper references. I clicked on the subheading for SPORTS FOR WOMEN — SOCIAL
ASPECTS which had only one but a promising entry, the Burroughs and Ashburn
article on stereotypes and homophobia in coverage of a sports discrimination
case in Australia16. I also tried SPORTS FOR WOMEN — PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASPECTS, and though it returned six citations, only the Weiss and Barber
article17 appeared promising for this bibliography. From this
citation, I clicked on the descriptor WOMEN ATHLETES — PSYCHOLOGY but found
that though that category returned several entries, the topics were not really
applicable for this bibliography.
The
next database I tried was Sociological Abstracts18. I first tried a
keyword search for "women" AND "sport" AND
"stereotype" (not including the quotation marks), but found just one
result, a good but slightly dated article by Kent Pearson19. I then
tried truncation, doing a keyword search for "women" AND
"sport*" AND "stereotype*." This search returned 61
excellent results, almost all of them applicable to this bibliography, proving
truncation can be a valuable tool. The "Framing of Sexual Difference"20
found on Academic Search Premier was cross-listed here, along with several
other articles on the media’s portrayal of gender in sport, as well as several
articles on the social expectations of gender and their effects on young girls
and women in sport, including the Cockburn and Clarke article on the
"femininity deficit"21. From this citation, I found the
descriptors SPORTS PARTICIPATION and SEX STEREOTYPES and did a descriptor
search for SPORTS PARTICIPATION AND SEX STEREOTYPES. This eliminated many of
the great articles that showed up on the keyword search, but also returned a
few citations that were not found with the keyword search, including the
article on an unbalanced high school athletic system22. Overall,
Sociological Abstracts proved to be a very useful database.
In
PsycINFO23, I did a keyword search for "women" AND
"sport*" AND "stereotype*" (without the quotation marks)
and found 31 results. Many of these citations were duplicates of articles I had
found through Sociological Abstracts or Academic Search Premier, like the
Hardin and others piece24. But this search did include a few good
original citations, such as a study of the sexual stereotypes applied to women
athletes25. From the citations from this keyword search, I found the
descriptors SPORTS and STEREOTYPED ATTITUDES. Both descriptors had several
thousand entries, with too many nonapplicable entries to be useful, so I did a
subject search combining both descriptors, DE=SPORTS AND DE=STEREOTYPED
ATTITUDES. This returned 21 entries, some already returned by the keyword
search, some dealing with race. But there were a few applicable articles, such
as a Meaney, Dornier and Owens piece on stereotypes through the age range26.
Overall, PsycINFO as a database was somewhat useful as a complement to
Sociological Abstracts.
I
again performed my keyword search for "women" AND "sport*"
AND "stereotype*" (without the quotation marks) in Physical Education
Index27, which returned 21 results. Approximately 80 percent of
these entries were applicable to this bibliography, and there was no crossover
with the citations provided by other databases searched so far. One interesting
citation returned by this keyword search was for a McClung and Blinde article28
on how participating in sports affects the gender stereotypes women athletes
possess — the flip side of the intended topic of this bibliography. From the
citations returned by this search, I found the descriptors SPORTS SOCIOLOGY,
GENDER EQUALITY and SPORTS (PARTICIPATION), but subject searches with each
individual descriptor were too general, with too many nonapplicable results to
be useful. Still, the original results from the keyword search in this database
are valuable to this bibliography.
I
again did the same truncated keyword search in PAIS International29
which only returned one result, a Toni Bruce article30 on fans’
response to televised women’s basketball which was partly applicable to this
bibliography. From this citation, I did find the descriptor WOMEN IN SPORTS and
did a subject search with this descriptor. This search returned 51 results, and
while not all were applicable, it was a reasonable enough amount of entries to
search through and pick out several articles which should be included in this
bibliography, such as Kristin Anderson’s study of gender in snowboarding31.
From this citation, I found the descriptor SPORTS — SOCIAL ASPECTS, but
clicking on this descriptor returned 78 results and almost none of them
applicable to this bibliography.
Studies
on Women and Gender Abstracts
I
decided to search Studies on Women and Gender Abstracts32, which
sounded like it should provide some good results. I first searched all words
for "stereotype sport" (without the quotation marks), which returned
just two entries, one a book. I backed up and searched for just sport, which
returned 36 results. While not all of the entries applied, some of the articles
looked promising for this bibliography, such as a study on how childhood play
influences women participating in sport later in their lives33. This
database offered no list of subject headings nor an option to search by subject
or descriptor, so my searching ended here. I was rather displeased with this
database due to its lack of searching options and also because many of the
citations did not include the authors’ full names — I had to google the
journals to find the names. This was especially disappointing since I had gone into
this database expecting more.
In
Digital Dissertations34 I did a keyword search for "women"
AND "sport*" AND "stereotype*" (without quotation marks)
which returned just three entries, but all of them applicable to this
bibliography, including Bruening’s dissertation35 on social forces
that impact the participation of African-American women in sports. Although
these were useful citations, since there were so few of them, I decided to try
a more general keyword search for "women" AND "sport*",
which yielded 356 results. While these are a lot of results to have to scan,
close to half the citations were applicable to this bibliography, including the
Beben dissertation on cheerleaders and gender expectations36.
Ingenta37
did not appear to have a descriptors list or allow truncation, so I did a
keyword search for "women sport stereotype" (without the quotation
marks), which returned no results. I then backed up and tried just "women
sport", which found 159 citations. I was not expecting too much from
Ingenta, considering that these seemed like rather general search terms, but to
my surprise, about 60 percent of the results were good articles applicable to
this bibliography, most in scholarly journals, such as the Wensing and Bruce analysis
of media coverage of the 2000 Olympics38. I also must admit that I
had been a little doubtful of Ingenta before I started searching because it was
a free database, and the useful results made me realize I must let go of my own
unfair stereotypes.
When
I did my usual keyword search in the full text of JSTOR39 in
education, general science, history, political science, sociology and
statistics journals, it brought back 39 results. However, none were applicable
to this bibliography and few were even about sports. I then backed up and tried
to search for just "women" AND "sport" (without quotation
marks). This search returned 200 entries, but still none were applicable to
this bibliography and there still were several articles that did not have much
to do with sports. I could find no thesaurus nor descriptors list, so I ended
my search in this database.
Since
truncation is not allowed in LexisNexis40, I did a keyword search
for just "women sport stereotype" (without quotation marks). This
brought up 125 results. Though many of the results were not particularly
useful, there were some stories that are applicable to this bibliography, such
as the Moritz article on hiring women coaches41. Since LexisNexis
has no descriptors, I ended my search here, finding the database somewhat
useful.
In
Google42, I searched for "women sports stereotype"
(without quotation marks), which returned 76,900 results. I only searched
through the first few pages of results, and found some interesting links to
articles in online periodicals and regular features of Web sites such as the
Women’s Sports Foundation home page43 proving to be rather valuable.
I then tried searching for "gender discrimination" and sports and
stereotype (with quotation marks), which returned 399 entries, some of them
duplicates of the first search and many not relevant to this bibliography.
However, through this search, I did find the curriculum vitae of Traci A.
Giuliano44, who has written several articles on gender stereotypes
and how they affect women in sports. Giuliano’s CV included lists of articles
she has published and articles which are being reviewed for publication, and
some of these articles should be examined for this bibliography.
This
assignment helped me grow more familiar with searching different databases and
showed me the value of searching multiple databases, particularly those that
have different scopes and concentrations, to find as complete a list as
possible since different databases index different journals. I also realized
that I had my own preconceived notions about how valuable different databases
would be from their names and whether they charged for use, expectations that
were not always true. As someone collecting research on the problems of
stereotypes, it is most important for me to let go of my own stereotypes and
not allow them to prevent me from taking full advantage of the resources
available.
I
had a lot of fun searching through different databases and seeing all the
research that has been published on this topic, and I hope to continue over the
winter break and try to compile this bibliography. I did not realize there was
so much research that has been done on gender stereotypes in sports, from
research on athletic participation as part of childhood socialization to how
the media recreates gender stereotypes through coverage (or lack thereof) of
women’s sports. One thing I was relatively surprised not to find were theories
that the increase in athletic opportunities for women have led to a social
valuing of sports and skills that emphasize gender difference, such as tackling
in football or dunking in basketball. If I do complete this bibliography, this
is one area in which I would definitely try to concentrate.
Appendix: Source and Subject
Heading Relevance
Key:
HR = Highly Relevant
U = Useful
NR = Not Relevant
Library of Congress Subject Headings
|
DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS |
U |
|
FEMINISM AND SPORTS |
U |
|
GAYS AND SPORTS |
NR |
|
HOMOPHOBIA IN SPORTS |
U |
|
LESBIANS AND SPORTS |
NR |
|
SEX DISCRIMINATION IN SPORTS |
HR |
|
STEREOTYPE IN SPORTS |
NR |
|
MASS MEDIA AND SPORTS |
HR |
|
SPORTS — SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS |
NR |
|
SPORTS FOR WOMEN |
HR |
|
SPORTS GYNECOLOGY |
NR |
Academic Search Premier
|
women AND sports AND stereotype |
HR |
|
WOMEN ATHLETES |
NR |
|
STEREOTYPING |
NR |
|
SPORTS FOR WOMEN — SOCIAL ASPECTS |
HR |
|
SPORTS FOR WOMEN — PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS |
U |
|
WOMEN ATHLETES — PSYCHOLOGY |
NR |
Sociological Abstracts
|
women AND sport AND stereotype |
U |
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
HR |
|
SPORTS PARTICIPATION AND SEX STEREOTYPES |
HR |
PsycINFO
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
U |
|
SPORTS |
NR |
|
STEREOTYPED ATTITUDES |
NR |
|
SPORTS AND STEREOTYPED ATTITUDES |
U |
Physical Education Index
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
HR |
|
SPORTS SOCIOLOGY |
NR |
|
GENDER EQUALITY |
NR |
|
SPORTS (PARTICIPATION) |
NR |
PAIS International
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
HR |
|
WOMEN IN SPORTS |
U |
|
SPORTS — SOCIAL ASPECTS |
NR |
Studies on Women and Gender Abstracts
|
Stereotype AND sport |
NR |
|
sport |
U |
Digital Dissertations
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
HR |
|
women AND sport* |
U |
Ingenta
|
women AND sport AND stereotype |
NR |
|
women AND sport |
U |
JSTOR
|
women AND sport* AND stereotype* |
NR |
|
women AND sport |
NR |
LexisNexis Academic
|
women AND sport AND stereotype |
U |
Google
|
women AND sport AND stereotype |
HR |
|
"gender discrimination" AND sport AND stereotype |
U |
Lenskyj, Helen. Women, Sport and Physical Activity: Research and Bibliography, 2nd ed. Ontario: Minister of Supply and Services, 1991. GV709.L47 1991
Offers a feminist and gynocentric critique of women’s participation in sports and the use of science to keep women out of athletics. Research in each section is accompanied by approximately page-long bibliography of recommended feminist sources. Also includes a three-page list of Canadian women’s organizations. Good feminist reference source.
Nelson, Mariah Burton. Are We Winning Yet? How Women are Changing Sports and Sports are Changing Women. New York: Random House, 1991. GV709.N44 1991
Uses stories of real women athletes to illustrate how women have battled stereotypes that have kept women out of sports, such as assumptions about their lack of ability or interest in sports. Also talks about the lesbian label in women’s sports and how homophobia can keep lesbian athletes in the closet. While well illustrated by moving stories of popular women athletes, does not appear to be a particularly scholarly source.
Griffin, Pat. Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homophobia in Sport. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1998. GV708.G75 1998
Examines the stereotype that all women athletes are lesbians and how it affects women’s participation in sports and acceptance (or lack there of) of lesbian athletes. Includes specific examples of harassment of and discrimination against lesbian coaches and athletes. Offers suggestions for ways to "open the closet" for lesbians in sport.
Hardin, Marie and others. "The Framing of Sexual Difference in SI for Kids Editorial Photos." Mass Communication & Society. 5 (3) (August 2002): 341-360. P95.54 M37
Considers how Sports Illustrated for Kids portrays sexual difference through its choice of photos. Study of the magazine found more representations of male athletes, particularly in strength and high-risk sports, while women, when pictured, were more likely to be shown participating in individual aesthetic sports. Does not offer a thorough analysis of reasons for the disparity in its findings.
Women in
Coaching and Administrative Positions
Wilkerson, Martha. "Explaining the Presence of Men Coaches in Women’s Sports." Journal of Sport and Social Issues. 20 (4) (November 1996): 411-26. GV561.J67
Considers stereotypes of coaches and how they cause a woman to appear less qualified for a coaching position than men, even if she is not. Includes results from surveys of Missouri high school athletic administrators on the goals of girls’ sports and qualities sought in a coach of girls’ sports, which show administrators seeks vague and unquantifiable goals and qualities that can lead to hidden discrimination.
Women’s Sports Foundation. Women’s Sports Foundation Home. Home page online. Available from http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org; Internet; accessed 10 November 2003.
Home page for nonprofit advocacy group includes information on Title IX and statistics on women’s participation in collegiate sports as athletes, coaches, and administrators. Offers counterarguments to stereotypes used by opponents of Title IX. Also includes users’ personal examples of sex discrimination in sports.
1 Corey Bray, 1981-82 – 2001-02 NCAA Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report (Indianapolis: National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2003). Available from http://www1.ncaa.org/membership/ed_outreach/gender_equity/index.html
2 Helen Lenskyj, Women, Sport and Physical Activity: Research and Bibliography, 2nd ed. (Ontario: Minister of Supply and Services, 1991). GV709.L47 1991
3 Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations, 6th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). LB2369.T8 1996
4 Library of Congress Subject Headings, 25th edition, volume 5. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress, 2002.
5 University of Hawai`i at Manoa, Hawaii Voyager Library Catalog [home page online]; available from http://libweb.hawaii.edu/uhmlib/index.htm; Internet; accessed 15 October 2003.
6 Straight Talk with Derek McGinty: Women in Sports: The Title IX Generation. (Washington, D.C.: PBS Video, 1997) videocassette, 60 min. Videotape 15053
7 Jennifer Hargreaves, Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity (New York: Routledge, 2000). GV709.H35 2000
8 Mariah Burton Nelson, Are We Winning Yet? How Women are Changing Sports and Sports are Changing Women (New York: Random House, 1991). GV709.N44 1991
9 Celia Brackenridge, Spoilsports: Understanding and Preventing Sexual Exploitation in Sports (New York: Routledge, 2001). GV706.32.B73 2001
10 Pamela J. Creedon, ed., Women, Media and Sport: Challenging Gender Values (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1994). GV706.32.W66 1994
11 "Is Sexism a Serious Problem in Sports?" William Dudley ed., Sports in America: Opposing Viewpoints (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1994). GV706.3.S67 1994.
12 Michael A. Messner, Taking the Field: Women, Men and Sports (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002). GV706.32.M47 2002
13 Pat Griffin, Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homophobia in Sport (Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1998). GV708.G75 1998
14 Academic Search Premier [database online] (EBSCO Publishing, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=2323>
15 Marie Hardin and others, "The Framing of Sexual Difference in SI for Kids Editorial Photos," Mass Communication and Society 5 (3) (August 2002): 341-360. P95.54 M37
16 Angela Burroughs and Liz Ashburn, "‘Add Sex and Stir:’ Homophobic Coverage of Women’s Cricket in Australia," Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19 (3) (August 1995): 266-285. GV561.J67
17 Maureen R. Weiss and Heather Barber, "Socialization Infcluences of Collegiate Female Athletes: A Tale of Two Decades," Sex Roles, 22 (1/2) (July 1995): 129-141. HQ21.S473
18 Sociological Abstracts [database online] (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=1295>
19 Kent Pearson, "Conflict, Stereotypes and Masculinity in Australian and New Zealand Surfing," The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 18 (2) (July 1982): 117-135. HM1.A87
20 Hardin and others, August 2002.
21 Claudia Cockburn and Gill Clarke, "‘Everybody’s Looking At You!’: Girls Negotiating the ‘Femininity Deficit’ they Incur in Physical Education," Women’s Studies International Forum 25 (6) (November-December 2002): 651-665. HQ1101.W74
22 Sohaila Shakib and Michele P. Dunbar, "The Social Construction of Female and Male High School Basketball Participation Reproducing the Gender Order Through a Two-Tiered Sporting Institution," Sociological Perspectives 45 (4) (Winter 2002): 353-378. HM1.P33
23 PsycINFO [database online], (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=1293>
24 Hardin and others, August 2002.
25 Brooke A. McKinney and Francis T. McAndrew, "Sexuality, Gender and Sport: Does Playing Have a Price?" Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research 5 (4) (Winter 2000): 152-158. BF1.P435
26 Karen S. Meaney, Lanie A. Dornier and Mary S. Owens, "Sex-Role Stereotyping for Selected Sport and Physical Activities Across Age Groups," Perceptual Motor Skills 94 (3, Pt. 1) (June 2002): 743-749. BF311.P36
27 Physical Education Index [database online] (Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=38113>
28 L.R. McClung and E.M. Blinde, "Sensitivity to Gender Issues: Accounts of Women Intercollegiate Athletes," International Sports Journal 6 (1) (Winter 2002): 117-133. GV576.158
29 Public Affairs Information Service International [database online] (Online Computer Library Center, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=1359>
30 Toni Bruce, "Audience Frustration and Pleasure: Women Viewers Confront Televised Women’s Basketball," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 22 (4) (November 1998): 373-397. GV561.J67.
31 Kristin L. Anderson, "Snowboarding: The Construction of Gender in an Emerging Sport," Journal of Sport and Social Issues 23 (1) (February 1999): 55-79. GV561.J67
32 Studies on Women and Gender Abstracts [database online] (Taylor & Francis Group, 2003) <http://swa.metapress.com>
33 Traci A. Giuliano, Kathryn E. Popp and Jennifer L. Knight, "Football versus Barbies: Childhood Play Activities as Predictors of Sport Participation by Women," Sex Roles 42 (2) (February 2000): 159-181. HQ21.S473
34 Digital Dissertations [database online] (UMI ProQuest, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu:2093/dissertations/gateway>
35 Jennifer Eileen Bruening, "Phenomenal Women: A Qualitative Study of Silencing, Stereotypes, Socialization and Strategies for Change in the Sport Participation of African-American Female Student-Athletes," PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 2000. Available from Digital Dissertations <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu:2093/dissertations/fullcit/9962381>
36 Alyson Andrea Beben, A Barbie who Puts Out: Adolescent Cheerleaders Contend with Standards of Femininity in High School and in Sport," Master’s thesis, York University, 2002. Available from Digital Dissertations <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu:2093/dissertations/fullcit/MQ71566>
37 Ingenta [database online] (Ingenta, 2003) <http://www.ingenta.com>
38 E.H. Wensing and T. Bruce, "Bending the Rules: Media Representations of Gender During an International Sporting Event," International Review for the Sociology of Sport 38 (4): 387-396.
39 JSTOR [database online] (JSTOR, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=1354>
40 LexisNexis Academic [database online] (LexisNexis, 2003) <http://micro189.lib3.hawaii.edu/ezproxy/details.php?dbld=2533>
41 Amy Moritz, "Fewer Women in Coaching; A Bounty of Other Opportunities for Female Athletes has Meant that More Women’s College Teams are Being Coached by Men," The Buffalo News, 4 September 2003, A1.
42 Google.com [search engine online]; available from http://www.google.com; Internet; accessed 10 November 2003.
43 Women’s Sports Foundation, Women’s Sports Foundation Home [home page online]; available from http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org; Internet; accessed 10 November 2003.
44 Traci A. Giuliano, Curriculum Vita [home page online]; available from http://www.southwestern.edu/~giuliant/vita.html; Internet; accessed 10 November 2003.