Problem Scenarios
A.– Background
Scenarios do not have to be of a fictitious nature, especially when
all too real scenarios relevant to the problem domain have already been enacted.
As such, the 3 scenarios described below are based on real and relatively
recent mountaineering tragedies. The readers will note that all scenarios
share similar characteristics:
1. They all occurred in "The Death Zone", an unforgiving environment where many great climbing careers came to an abrupt end. Above 7,500 m a climber begin to die from oxygen deprivation as the human body is no longer able to adapt to altitude and quickly deteriorates. As such, and under the best circumstances, a climber can survive in the death zone for four days at most.
2. All climbers were highly skilled, highly experienced extreme altitude climbers, well known in the tight knit extreme altitude climbers community.
3. None of the victims had any previous medical history of the conditions that eventually led to their death
B.– Climber Profiles
* Reinhart
Reinhart was a 32 years old extreme altitude climber from Austria.
His summits included Makalu (8240m), Nanga Parbat, Anapurna I (8091 m) and
Shishapangma (8027 m).
Reinhart lost his life in Pakistan on "The Shinning Wall" while
climbing Gasherbrum I (8068 m). He died of HACE in the Death Zone,
* Nicklaus
Nicklaus was a 35 years old extreme altitude climber from Switzerland who
was known to be one of the best fit and fastest climbers ever.
His summits included Everest (8848 m) twice, Kangchenjunga (8586 m), Shishapangma
(8027) Annapurna I (8091 m) and a new solo route on Gasherbrum II (8035 m),.
Nicklaus died of hypothermia on K2 (8,611 m), the toughest eight thousander,
on his way down from the summit in a high wind powered snow storm just bellow
the south-east ridge and well within the death zone.
* Ingvar
Ingvar was a 28 years old extreme altitude climber from Denmark .
His summits included Cho Oyu (8201 m), Dhaulagiri (8167 m), Makalu (8141 m),
Everest (8848 m) and K2 (8611 m).
Known for his quick temper and his fierce independence Ingvar was never a
"team player"; but his determination and inner resolve in the most
daunting moments were legendary.
Ingvar died of HAPE (High Altitude Pulmonary Edema) shortly after a 70 feet
fall on Everest northeast ridge 4th step.
C.– Scenarios
* Scenario 1
Location: Gasherbrum I
Cause of death: High Altitude Cerebral Edema
That night Reinhart left Camp 3 on Gasherbrum I around midnight
in apparent good condition with 2 other climbers. About four hours later he
began having numerous episodes of expressive aphasia (loss of coordination)
associated with a mild headache and nausea. According to witnesses, he seemed
to know what he wanted to say but seemed unable to communicate. There was
no evident confusion but long latencies in answering questions, a staggering
walk, and general lethargy. The aphasia and latency increased with the onset
of a severe headache in the following hours. He soon became unable to walk
and shortly thereafter fell into a coma. Help was requested repeatedly via
Walkie-Talkie but the climbers seemed out of range and distressing static
was their only answer, A slow evacuation down to camp 3 began in a severe
snow storm via a rapid but dangerous technical route. Back to camp his pulse
was very weak and irregular. Reinhart died early the following morning.
Reinhart had a good ascent profile and had been at high altitude for several weeks. He had already climbed well beyond Camp 3 twice the preceding week. He had an unremarkable past medical history,and had no prior history of aphasia, HAPE, or HACE.
Fig 1 Gasherbrum I (8068 meters/26,470ft). Camp 3 is on the upper left.
* Scenario 2
Location: K2
Cause of death: Hypothermia
That night well rested and in calm weather, Nicklaus left high camp on K2 for a solo summit attempt . Everyone else was too exhausted to push on and remained at high camp, happy to just relax and drink hot tea. In the following afternoon however the weather changed rapidly. Dark ominous clouds enveloped the mountain and before soon a violent snow storm was mercilessly whipping high camp.The tents flapped incessantly and even the smallest of openings let in copious amounts of spin drift which clung to everything before melting, creating dismal, slick and damp conditions inside. They were worried for Nicklaus. They knew that many climbers had taken up to 20 hours to climb from high camp to the summit, a distance of less than 700 m (2100 ft). Nicklaus was known to be fast. But with those conditions Nicklaus might never make it back. In the meantime the storm continued to rip at the tents.When Nicklaus finally returned greeting them with a V from his extended hand they were ecstatic. But there was no time to celebrate his success. The storm had obviously taken a serious toll on him: shivering with cold he was barely able to talk. In view of his serious condition it was decided to start descent in spite of bad weather. The tent was left standing and all went down towards the "bottleneck" a 10 meter wide gully, sloping at a 45-degree angle towards the sheer south face. Inside the 'bottleneck' Nicklaus felt the bite of the wind subside but asked for help several times. Climbing down the 'bottleneck' clipping into ropes covered with hoar frost, Nicklaus' fingers and feet were chilled to the extent that frostbite was now inevitable. He climbed down slowly, assisted by 2 other climbers. Under ordinary circumstances, this part of the route to Camp 4 has a reputation as a formidable obstacle. That day, due to bullet proof ice lining the walls. everyone going down this way was using every bit of their last strength. Having reached the bottom Nicklaus was shivering uncontrollably and obviously could not go any further. After a futile attempt to drag Nicklaus down the mountain in his sleeping bag radio contact with Camp 4 advised to secured him on the snow slope with two ice axes until a fresh party could be mustered to bring him down to Camp 4. However, when the rescue party returned to Nicklaus they found him unconscious and apparently dead. Quite a bit of time was wasted wondering what to do next; the wind was so strong that simply standing up was nearly impossible. The rescue party prepared to bivouac for the night. All were finally ready to take shelter within the tent when the rescue party leader took a last look at Nicklaus. A closer examination revealed a very weak pulse and almost undetectable breathing. Nicklaus was immediately dragged inside and covered with 2 more sleeping bags. A few hours later he stopped breathing and his heart stopped altogether.
Nicklaus had a good ascent profile and had been at high altitude for over two months. He had an unremarkable past medical history,and had no prior history of hypothermia at high elevation.
Fig 2 K2 South East Ridge Route (Abruzzi Ridge)
* Scenario 3
Location: Everest Northeast Ridge
Cause of death: High Altitude Pulmonary Edema
This was by all accounts a bright, beautiful day and although Ingvar was obviously
exhausted so close to the summit nothing seemed out of the ordinary as he
was waiting for his turn to go up the 70 ft crag called the Second Step. Though
the Second Step would not be difficult at sea level for such an experienced
climber as Ingvar, at Everest 's altitude (8848 m), it is considered one of
the most technically challenging aspect of the climb. Ordinarily climbed with
fixed ropes, it is a notorious bottleneck as only one climber can climb at
a time. Ingvar began coughing violently while examining the fixed ropes,
blaming it on chronic asthma. He remarked briefly about pain in his chest,
and as a climber suggested he returns to Camp VI, he snapped back irritably.
Spurning allegedly frayed fixed ropes he decided to lead and slowly went up.
Things seem to go smoothly and he was almost at the top when a strong gust
of wind on the exposed ridge lashed at him without warning. Suddenly the rope
went slack, then started to rip the gear. Ingvar impacted the shelf on which
another climber was belaying, and fell another 50 feet on his chest over a
sharp rock. Amazingly enough he was alive and semi-conscious. A quick examination
revealed an open fracture of the femur, a broken pelvis, and multiple ribs
fractures – a particular painful condition accentuated by continuous
coughing. Climbers report that a characteristic pink, frothy sputum was coming
out of his mouth, that his lips had a dark blue color and a climber voiced
concerned about the possibility of Ingvar suffering from HAPE or HACE. Communication
with Camp VI was initiated by Walkie-Talkie radio but evacuation was delayed
due to severe bleeding. By the time bleeding was contained Ingvar was coughing
continuously and breathed with great difficulties with distinct gurgling sounds.
He soon became unconscious slowly drowning in his own fluids. A rescue party
from Camp VI eventually reached the scene with supplemental oxygen; however
no improvements were noticed in Ingvar condition and he died of a massive
HAPE attack shortly before reaching Camp VI.
Fig 3 Everest North Face