New technologies introduce new ethical issues into society and amplify existing and eternal ones. New communication media produce a parade of visible and invisible effects in society. Since these effects and ethical issues are seldom noticed until they are rampant, it is important to catalog, analyze and publicize these effects and issues when they are identified. In 1998 the author published an inventory of forty such effects with an analysis of their nature and relationship to previous effects. Already the author notes an increase of twelve, from forty to fifty-two such issues during just the past years. Listing and explaining all fifty-two ethical issues and effects, the author offers recommendations for better understanding such effects and warns about the need for increasing pre-search (defined within) and analysis in an age of increasing speed-up.

INTRODUCTION

In 1998 a special issue of The Journal of Mass Media Ethics focused upon the numerous and complex ethical issues surrounding new media. This author contributed an inventory of forty ethical issues and effects compounded or introduced by new media.

What is startling is that, at least by this author's count, the list of ethical issues has grown from forty to fifty-two. Other scholars might find more issues and lengthen the inventory while still other scholars might collapse similar categories into subgroups and thus provide a shorter list. In that sense the number fifty-two is somewhat arbitrary. What is not arbitrary nor debatable is the rapid rate at which such an inventory is growing. Since each technology introduces new ethical issues and amplifies existing ones, and since society has been flooded by new media and their appurtenances, it will take a sizable research task force to keep up with the proliferation of issues.

This paper alphabetizes, lists, explains and often gives examples of fifty-two different social effects and ethical issues associated with new media. Following the inventory an analysis of those issues, their relationship to pre-existing issues and effects, and a list of recommendations for studying and preventing such effects is offered.

THE PREMISE

The ripple effect is changed by what produces the ripple. Dropping a stone into a pond usually produces a steady, predictable pattern. But dropping an opened can of paint may also leave an unpredictable color design. Dropping two moving motorboats with twin propellers creates a different, changing pattern. And dropping a nuclear bomb may alter the entire ecosystem and the ripple speed.

Similarly, introducing one new technology into society may produce a seemingly predictable ripple pattern of effects, at least on the surface. Another new technology will act entirely differently and raise unforeseen social and ethical issues. To further complicate matters, introducing technologies into different countries and cultures may produce patterns as different as dropping unlit fireworks into a pond and into a fire. The nature of the technology, who has access to it, and the context into which it is introduced may greatly alter its impact upon society.

Marshall McLuhan noted that a bomber pilot is totally detached from and unaware of the particular pattern of disruption and rearrangement of lives, families, and businesses caused by the bombs below (S. McLuhan, 3). Even so the creators of new technologies may have little awareness of social, cultural, political, and economic changes catalyzed by their inventions. Often little attention is given to the ethical issues, side effects, and concomitant transformation which accompany new inventions until after widespread implementation with unexpected results.

NEW TECHNOLOGY STUDY

For these and many other reasons it is important to study each new technology before and during its introduction into countries, tribes, businesses, schools, and neighborhoods. Hidden effects and ethical issues discovered after the fact have led to confusion, frustration, social dilemmas, and corporate lawsuits. Since new communication and information technologies are being introduced more rapidly into society than ever before, and into some societies for the first time, it is especially important to study the effects and ethical issues accompanying new communication media.

Computers, satellites, fiber optics, faxes, the internet, virtual reality, and a host of other technologies have sustained, amplified, transformed, and introduced numerous ethical issues and social effects before society could predict or digest such rapid change. Invasion of privacy, piracy, intellectual property rights, obscenity, public access, digital manipulation, censorship, and secrecy are just of a few of the better known high tech issues.

DOMINION OVER THE TECHNOLOGY

In such a runaway technology/effect explosion, it is natural for humanity to wish to regain dominion over technology and its effects. Appropriately enough, International Radio and Television Society thinker Peter Kohler created an imaginary American media company called Dominion in his case study for a IRTS seminar in New York (Kohler, 1997). Within the case study teams of university professors who simulated the roles of company executives and managers were asked to research how this largely traditional media company (Dominion) might introduce new technology products and services into its company vision and sales over the next five years.

This research attempts to catalog the types of ethical issues and related social effects a company like Dominion might face when implementing and distributing such new technology products and services. Indeed the inventory of effects below is also a partial list of issues and effects already encountered by real companies, institutions, governments, and organizations.

ALPHABETIZING AND DESCRIBING

To gain some modicum of understanding of the socio-ethical effects of new technologies, it is first necessary to identify and study each seeming effect and issue to determine its nature, impact, and overall relationship to society. Because there are so many new communication technologies and products, with unknown spin-off implications, it is also the purpose of this paper to bring some order to the study of these runaway effects.

An alphabetical list of fifty-two observed effects of new technologies will be provided with a brief description of each effect or ethical issue related to the effect. A first step toward understanding seeming chaos is the listing, describing, and analyzing of discrete elements within the known perestroika. Toward that end, the ordered list below will be accompanied by an analysis of observed patterns, uniqueness, and tendencies.

METHODS

Like all initial attempts at structure, this list and analysis are incomplete and embryonic. Terms overlap, key words listed could be replaced by their synonyms, and identifying phrases and terms vary from Silicon Valley to Silicon Alley and indeed within the academy, and society. Nevertheless some categorical nomenclature is necessary. Moreover this author has no objection to those who wish to modify, expand, and refine the terminology below. More important is the task of providing awareness of the immense scope of issues for companies like Dominion and students of communication. Indeed a huge spectrum of issues exist which must be researched and discussed within the industry, the academy, and society. The list and analysis below are but two of many catalysts toward such research and discussion.

FIFTY-TWO ISSUES AND EFFECTS

Although selective and ever-changing, this budding list is compiled from 1) many conferences, texts, tapes, seminars, web sites, and publications about the new communication technologies, 2) first hand encounters, and 3) independent thinking. While "fifty-two" is both arbitrary and delimiting, so, too, would be any number, and this number will grow in months to come. Indeed it has grown "by the dozen" since it was published last year. In the age of hypertext it is not surprising that issues not only overlap but often lead one to another.

1) ACCURACY: Because so many forms of internet communication are created by amateurs who often fail to reveal or check their sources, it is impossible to determine how much new media information is accurate. Since cyberjournalists can update news more quickly than other media, competitive pressure minimizes time for checking and synthesizing facts. Much information is copied, excerpted, paraphrased, and transferred out of context. On-line cancer treatment, real estate deals, singles ads, miracle drugs, and much more, may be even harder to verify and regulate than these in print.

2) AGENCY: intelligent agents are sophisticated cyber "worker bees" which labor around the clock to perform secretarial, library, and other tasks as programmed by their user. Agency implies all the ethical issues surrounding electronic substitutions for person-to-person contact including impersonal, inappropriate, redundant, unthinking action performed or mailed "on behalf of". Agency connotes the insensitivity to human pain, purpose, and perception portrayed by "HAL" the computer in 2001: A SPACE ODYSSEY. (See Gilbert)

3) ANONYMITY: many electronic message systems make false, borrowed, encrypted, and unknown identities (fake i.d.s) easier to transmit further, faster, and en mass. Not only do the problems of deception and secrecy multiply, but e-mailbombs, viruses, harassment, laundered money, invasion of privacy, harassment, libel, obscenity and other familiar ethics problems become more tempting and widespread (see Fowler, Singer) when the user's true identity is hidden.

4) AUTISM: metaphorically, an autistic society wears headsets, virtual reality headgear, and a wraparound "wired womb", protecting itself against a threatening reality. Phasing out human contact in favor of electronic surround, the "Rainman" culture creates more communication consumption machines than children, and these children absorb more recycled ads, shows, pop hits, video games, and software violence than fresh air and fresh ideas. Enter social autism. (See Cooper, 1986)

5) AUTOMATION: although replacing skilled craftsmen with machines has been common practice for decades, cyberautomation features new software every month which renders skills and trades obsolete or less necessary. Downsizing, layoffs, and corporate/institutional restructuring are common features of the omnitransformative age. Automation also transmutes consciousness and reinforces social dependency upon technology and "techne" (see Lambertson, 12; Ellul, Mumford).

6) BOOTLEGGING: copying and (re)selling other people's software, tapes, C.D.'s, data, and other forms of information becomes instant in an age of point and click duplicating, xerography, and home copying. Further complicating these matters are diverse definitions and standards regarding ownership, information flow, piracy, and intellectual property across cultural and national boundaries. (See Barlow, 5)

7) CODES OF ETHICS: Codes, guidelines, norms, standards, policies for internet and cyberspace practice become impossible to implement when the technologies, participants, servers, and vendors in a global (multi-) medium represent numerous languages, ethical mores, and transient sites with no central control point. Even more difficult to standardize and implement are guidelines for bushfire technologies, which spread quickly one after another, often interact, and which are quickly dated or obsolete.

8) CONFIDENTIALITY, SOURCES, SECRECY: Age-old problems of containment are magnified in an age of electronic encryption, interception, and the ongoing battle of codemakers vs. codebreakers. Anonymous sources become more plentiful and difficult to identify when pseudo-sites, third-party locations, "carriers", mobile cellular phones, on-line covers, and impersonation further conceal the identity, locale, gender, and personality of the messenger.

9) CONFLICT OF INTEREST: Major mergers feature old media (broadcasting, print) holding hands with new such that fewer and fewer players control large corridors of information. Increasingly, owners have conflicted interests in the operations of new media and multiple systems. As broadcasters and studios merge with multiple systems (cf. Time/Warner) or with software providers (MSNBC) or with telephony (Bell Atlantic/TCI) the question "in whose interest?" is more frequently asked about telecommunication/new tech operations and acquisitions.

10) CONSUMERISM, COMMERCIALIZATION, MATERIALISM: New technologies often import advertising, urban rhythms, and the accompanying vision of a lavish life-style. Sukarno regarded the influx of Hollywood into Indonesia as "a monster ad for consumer goods". Even the presence of the internet in some regions is an indirect ad for computers, software, video games, and a high-tech vogue. More than any preceding communication technologies, those of the 90's and of the new millennium are themselves consumable--throw-away cameras, quickly dated software, and last year's hardware. "Nothing is obsolete until you own one."

11) CULTURAL EROSION: Both tribes and anthropologists have seen communication technologies as a factor in the erosion of authentic tribal traditions and customs. Ogden's observation about the effects of headsets and television in the Marshall Islands is echoed in the sentiments of Eliade's The Elder Brother's Warning. Pavlik notes the bans by China, Saudi Arabian, and other Muslim countries on satellite dishes. Desacralization, obscenity, and the homogenization of culture are common fears. Satellite footprint overspill, internet invasion, and Madison Ave. exportation into tiny islands like Yap mix the Playboy channel with the Koran/Bible belt. (see Ogden, Eliade, Pavlik, 88, and YAP)

12) CYBERHATE: Holocaust denial, Ku Klux Klan preachments, and incitement to genocide have all been advocated on the internet. Recently an anti-abortion site was removed from the world wide web for seemingly advocating the murder of doctors performing abortions. The videotape Internet: CyberHate and Freedom of Speech provides interviews with leaders from the Simon Weisenthal Center and similar organizations who are painfully aware of the effects of ubiquitous web sites, easily available to children, which promote anti-Semitism, white supremacy and numerous hate crimes.

13) DECEPTION: Numerous ethical problems such as digital manipulation, impersonation, false advertising, puffery, hype, masking, and data massaging abound. The deliberate and accidental substitution of illusion for reality, and propaganda for proper data have become far easier. Documents may be altered without detection by long distance "ghosts" and realistic, albeit artificial images may be quickly synthesized. Theoretically a presidential candidate may now be computer generated, credentialed on-line, and elected without ever being publicly seen (other than via a human stand-in).

14) DEFAMATION (SLANDER AND LIBEL): Character assassination may be orchestrated by innumerable electronic agents generating anonymous smear campaigns. Internet servers who provide wires for libellous accusations about real people are, or are not, accountable for said content depending upon technology, culture, and location. Questions about responsibility and accountability for content magnify. Are the damages against a person's reputation published in a newspaper less significant if "published" on-line in the more malleable, non-mass medium of the internet?

15) DEHUMANIZATION: Robots and artificial intelligence have long been posed as the antithesis to humanity and thus a threat to humane values. However, 900 numbers, virtual mates, and cyber Pets now seem more threatening to human relationships. How may a spouse compare sexually to a perfect, life-size image which never complains and simulates all sensual pleasures without aging, gaining weight, or crying? Humans increasingly imitate such icons through cosmetics, silicon implants, surgery, etc. (See Mitroff and Bennis)

16) DEMOCRACY/GOVERNANCE: Elections are increasingly controlled by those who own or "buy time" on major media. Satellites and fiber-optic cables make possible the "Big Brother" possibilities of Orwell in a world in which all stations may receive a single signal via omniconferencing and cybercommunity. New surveillance technologies also make possible a world in which all "dangerous" citizens are observed and potentially reported or controlled. Although many new technologies are seen as decentralized and liberating, they also make possible the concentration of power into the hands of a few megahackers who quietly change all data/history, eliminate powerpoints via hypervirus, or empower "Big Brother" via exclusively owned super-Satan software and its kin.

17) DESTRUCTIVE APPLICATIONS: Although new technologies advance unprecedented levels of weapon development and evolution, a greater destructive capability exists in the (lack of) control of weapons already existing. World War III will not be won by those with superior weapons, but by those who may use remote cyber-controls to turn weapons back upon those who fired them (and who become boomerang targets). All systems dependent upon artificial intelligence--air traffic control, world bank, power companies, nuclear reactor functions--may also be destroyed by the abuse or destruction of artificial intelligence.

18) DIGITAL MANIPULATION: As Arnheim argued in the 1920's, the greater a technology resembles reality, the greater the possibility it can be distorted to mislead us. Scitex, CEPS, and Adobe programs which allow adjustment of hue, shape, saturation, shape, even of individual pixels, usher in the age of morphing and visual cloning. Powell predicts "totally synthetic news events" and Pavlik notes a manipulated Pulitzer Prize winning retouched photo. Questions of verisimilitude vs. reality, fakery vs. "spoofing" and parody, racism (the O.J. Simpson TIME cover) vs. realism run rampant (see Arnheim, Powell, Pavlik).

19) ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE/WASTE: Large amounts of chemicals by-products, toxic waste, resource depletion and environmental imbalance result from the production, distribution, and utilization of new technologies. More oil (petroleum based ink) may have been spilled writing about the Exxon Valdez than by it. The daily use of computer and newspaper destroys forests and the earth now wears a giant, radiant electric blanket. Fiberoptics refractory coating, satellite "parking lots", suboceanic dredging to lay cable, not to mention plastic manufacturing and waste all add to the coming state of what scientists call "omnicide", the death of all life as we know it. (Brikeland Report, State of the Earth, Rio Summit, Club or Rome, etc.)

20) FAIRNESS/EQUALITY: One of the most ancient ethical issues is magnified when discussing resources (technology rich and technology poor countries, regions, and peoples), access, and even air space. Questions about how the air spectrum should be allocated, about whether foreign owned satellites may orbit over domestic military sites, about who should be charged and how much for transmission and transponder time magnify questions of global (in)equality and fairness. Similarly questions of intellectual property, ownership, and royalties, etc., raise questions of distributive justice--who if anyone, should profit from the distribution of information?

21) FLAMING AND INTERNET/TELECOM PROTOCOL: New technologies introduce a new vocabulary such as "flaming", "spamming", and "slamming" which summon up old vocabulary such as "rudeness", "crudeness", and "imposition". Flaming (sending negative feedback, criticism, even mailbombing to quiet unwanted advertising or problematic e-mail on the net), spamming (sending out unwanted cyberadvertising), and mailbombing (targeting and taking out specific computers by mail overload or cybersabotage), albeit often unethical, may often be defended as a response to unethical communication. (See Pavlik, 146-7)

22) FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION/CENSORSHIP: Recent controversy over whether the press should have access to military satellite information sparked a traditional press vs. pentagon tug of war. First Amendment battles rage around the limits to internet censorship without which library computers are jammed by teens and children finding on-line pornography. While the controversy has always brewed at the micro-level, home movies mixed with multi-media make almost everyone a potential hate mail, pedophilia, or psychotic mass message merchant from one's own home.

23) GENDER AND RACE: The open and decentralized nature of the internet has permitted many hate-sites, gender biased chatgroups, Holocaust denial locales, etc. On line racism, harassment, obscene eel (e-mail) calls, are "encouraged" by the distant proximity, anonymity, ubiquity, and convenience of cyberports, public fax machines, the world wide web, and a wired/cable world. Whether cyberhate, sexist bulletin boards, and on-line ethnic wars may be limited is a function of local policies, national laws, international agreements, and especially the implementation of all of these.

24) HIDDEN TAPING/TAPPING: Wire-tapping and taping has moved toward hidden monitoring of data transactions. Ludlow reports, for example, that the United States government, for example, is making inroads at observing individual electronic cashflow. Most e-mail users are unaware of who (their provider, their employer, their local gatekeeper) can read their e-mail. Since e-mail, faxes, etc., unlike telephony, telegraphy, etc., automatically are recorded messages, their duplication, forwarding, preservation, and delayed monitoring becomes far easier. (See Ludlow, xiv)

25) HOAXES: Fred Fedler's book Media Hoax refers to hundreds of hoaxes published by mass media due to insufficient time and scrutiny by editors and publishers. Indeed New York University professor Joe Seaggs stages fake press conferences to continually trick journalists. New media magnify such practices by supplying practical jokers, hackers, criminals, satirists, impersonators, and psychopaths with their own personal mass medium.

26) IMPERSONATION: Recently a midwest coed left her computer to run an errand and returned to find numerous X-rated sexual come-ons in her e-mail. While she was away a male prankster had sent out a hot sexual come-on to many locations using her terminal and identity. She was not amused. Impersonation makes it possible for Saddam Hussein to take distance-learning courses in military strategy from West Point (or similar) or Howard Stern to earn a dozen on-line honors degrees (with the help of nerds using his name) from as many universities. The unethical and even criminal possibilities seem endless.

27) INFORMATION ANXIETY: Closely linked to #37, noise pollution, and 39, "Psychological Damage" Wurnam's Information Anxiety, both as book and content describe an area in which it is impossible to know if one has consumed all useful information. Feeling overloaded, and not knowing what one should be reading due to information glut, contributes to stress, burn out, and confusion.

28) INFORMATION FLOW/ DISTRIBUTION: Lamberton cites "asset egalitarianism" and "information asymmetry" as two problems in Australian telecommunication which are echoed worldwide. Governments, gatekeepers, corporations, and policies may promote either a one, two or multi-way flow of information. Although Barlow argues that "information wants to be free", corporations argue that "information wants to be profitable" and seek to control it by trademark, copyright, access, and distribution. Garfinkel, Stallman, and Kapor well document how big fish (companies, cf. countries) swallow little fish (companies, cf. Countries) in patent wars. Those who can mount the largest lawsuits, trade pressures, and competitive muscle often largely influence information flow, containment, and technology development dams. (See Garfinkel, Stallman, and Kapor; Barlow; Lambertson)

29) INFORMATION UNDERCLASS: Like cultural erosion, cultural dependency features dominant countries, corporations, and groups preying upon the economies, resources, and markets of "underclass" countries, often in return for access to technology and services. The information "haves" (often "first" and "second world" countries) and "have nots" (often "third world" countries) are further reinforced by the growth of cyber literacy among the former and cyber illiteracy, and often technology deprivation, among the second. Questions surrounding fairness, justice, democracy, access are abundant.

30) INSUFFICIENT TESTING: Tunnel vision, bottom line mentality, competitive rush, and downsizing economics are some of the factors which lead manufacturers, inventors, governments, and venture capitalists to overlook the thorough independent pre-testing and follow-up testing necessary with new communication/information technologies. Although it would be unthinkable to dissolve the Federal Food and Drug Administration which pretests new foods and drugs for (side) effects before they are marketed and sold, the U.S. Government abolished the Office of Technology Assessment, which was already minuscule in comparison to the large number of new inventions and media. In-company research often fails to protect the consumer as tobacco company research well illustrates.

31) INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY/OWNERSHIP: Copyright and patent abuse have become the "90's nightmare". Since both laws and ethics vary from country to country, medium to medium, and subculture to subculture, and since those who implement policies and legislation cannot keep up with brushfire technologies, ethical and epistemological questions springing from "what is an idea and to whom, if anyone, does it belong?" magnify, especially when so many micro-products (cf. Software) are clusters of patented segments. Implementation within an ocean of new, tiny, instantly transportable products is the "second nightmare". (See Godwin, Heckel, Barlow, Ludlow)

32) KNOWLEDGE LAG: It is currently impossible to map or even know the extent of all knowledge in the world or even one language. Due to an erosion of standards about what is posted or electronically "published" as knowledge, it is difficult to separate research from conjecture and documentation from fabrication. This lag in knowing how much knowledge exists, which aspects are valid, and what it all means grows rapidly. If knowledge doubled in the past decade as reported, the proliferation of new media available to millions of people will soon make it impossible for anyone to read and organize everything even realated to be significant knowledge.

33) MACRO ISSUES: At the macro level environmentalists seem to argue more about when than if the world will end. Single technologies like the telephone which necessitate small forests of telephone poles and larger forests of huge, seldom used telephone books in each city, and megatons of copper and plastic worldwide contribute to such macro issues as terrahomicide. Other macro issues include the widespread vacuum of thought about the larger impact of multi-technology on human thinking and (inter)activity, the Ross Hume Hall effect (discussed under "analysis" below), the absence of greater purpose for many technologies (other than a "Yuppie toy chest"), and the Huxley/Postman syndrome, that we are "amusing ourselves to death." (See Huxley, Postman)

34) MIND CONTROL: How are epistemology, consciousness, literacy, and general thought modes changed in an age when we see over 5,000 ads before we enter kindergarten, when journalism becomes "brain surgery without a license", when "point and click" replace read and write, when "virtual" becomes associated with "reality". More education takes place outside than inside the classroom, which classroom in turn is infiltrated by commercialized, hip Channel One . Educators report that the internet would be most often accessed for pornography, not knowledge, if not patrolled, and that spell check and Groliers C.D. Rom replace skills and in-depth research. To what extent will the "instant fix" for answers replace reflective, multi-documented criticism and analysis?

35) MONOPOLY/ANTI-TRUST: Ben Bagdikian's theme "fewer and fewer hands control greater amounts of information" becomes even more evident among the few digerati (cf. literati) at the top (e.g. the Microsoft/Netscape wars, the Bell Atlantic/TCI/Paramount finagling). Global super-powers jockey for position via intermarriage and clan rivalries such that customers who seem to have greater choices via cable's many channels and the internet's content cornucopia actually have far fewer rivers into which these revenue streams flow. Major ethical issues revolve around the "limits to (corporate) growth", public choice, multi-tongue voices (a la Murdoch), global dominance, single-source knowledge, and even content conversion (as in Pavlik's observation that when G.E. Acquired NBC "news at any cost" values were replaced with a strict bottom line orientation. (See Bagdikian, Lamberton, Pavlik, 16-17)

36) MULTI-USER DOMAIN ABUSE: Pavlik describes MUDs as "a broad class of on-line adventure games in which at least two participants play in fantasy worlds they help create...."(Pavlik, 170) He further reports that they became so addictive that Amherst College banned them in 1992 and Australia banned them from the entire continent. Beyond their addictive attraction, MUDs also, despite some very positive and creative features, render the type of on-line violence in which the line between fantasy and reality is minuscule. "Killing" someone in on-line Dungeons and Dragons seems paradoxically at once all the more harmless (since just a game) but all the more tempting (since one is so drawn in). MUD-related real-life violence, harassment, and animosity, sometimes by children, is a disturbing side-effect of the "games". (See Pavlik, 170-1)

37) NOISE POLLUTION: Acoustic experts such as Schaeffer and listening specialists such as Diggins and Zucharelli remind us that sound is not "noise", and that "noise" (unwanted or disturbing sound) has increased drastically in this century. Shannon and Weaver, whose mathematical theory was one basis for the study of communication defined "noise" more as "meaningless", "distracting", or "disruptive" sound (or visual "static") which interfered with or overlaid the message. Both types of noise accompany the proliferation of technologies, new and old, and both confuse/annoy the learner, consumer, and even average citizen who may bemoan the absence of silence or the presence of glitches, background sounds, hissing, cyberconfusion, ghetto blasters, programmed muzak, and white noise in increasingly remote corridors. (See Schaeffer, Diggins, Zucharelli; Shannon and Weaver).

38) OBSCENITY, INDECENCY, PORNOGRAPHY: So much is being written about the on-line obscenity debate that it is difficult to know whom to quote. U.S. Legislation such as the Exxon bill or various (in)decency acts keep the ACLU, libertarian artists, and congress(wo)men on their toes. New technologies in aggregate increase the 1) availability 2) realism 3) choice and 4) extreme versions of obscene materials to children, psychotics, pedophiles, and public alike. Safeguards against accidental intrusion are available to parents, librarians, etc., but systems are not foolproof, free, nor ubiquitous. Virtual reality, satellites, the internet, web, and multi-media all provide different problems, from the Playboy channel being accidentally beamed to Iraq to six year olds accidentally viewing sodomy on-line.

39) PSYCHOLOGICAL DAMAGE: Although often difficult to detect, some mental problems associated with new technologies are commonly reported. Wurham's "Information Anxiety" which features the stress of being unable to keep up with information overload (from innumerable faxes, e-mail, memos, teleconferences, cyberlists, software upgrades, constant on-the-job learning, etc.) is widely experienced in institutional and corporate life while excessive exposure to violent video games has been associated with trauma and anxiety among youngsters. Some games have even been shown to trigger epileptic seizure while the debate about how much violent behavior is catalyzed by technology icons and modeling continues. Questions about what happens to the collective psyche or an over-loaded, noisy, image-laden, station-to-station (rather than person-to-person) wired womb society are yet to be determined although many critics note disturbing tendencies.

40) PHYSIOLOGICAL DAMAGE: Conflicting research and reports about whether cellular phone use is linked to brain tumors or more conclusive research that high exposure to computer monitors may be damaging to pregnant women alert companies, consumers, and lawyers alike to new domains of concern and litigation. Scientists such as Berger and journalists such as Giorgianni report some correlation between the use of headphones and permanent hearing loss. Perhaps the larger issue than known effects are the unknown effects, insufficient testing, and the "Exxon Valdez" effect i.e. concern catapults only after problems are publicized. (See Giorgianni).

41) PLAGIARISM: Now that it is frequently less possible or impossible to determine authorship, the standards as to what constitutes plagiarism are in question. When lack of documentation (more frequent on the internet than in print) leads to accidental and incidental plagiarism, who is accountable? When hypertext links lead from author to author to anonymous data to transient site to pseudo-document, how can one be sure of 1) authenticity 2) authorship 3) original authorship and 4) accuracy? Students now cite "the internet" as if it is an author unto itself. Such problems further complicate related issues of copyright, intellectual property, and ownership.

42) PRIVACY: Problems relating to privacy invasion, including surveillance, data theft and hijacking, impersonation to obtain information or records, unauthorized access, circulation of incorrect data, on-line voyeurism, wire-tap(p)ing, espionage, intrusion to telebanking, telemarketing, on-line campaign strategies et al are now among the largest for corporations, state agencies, institutions, and individuals to detect and counter. From the macro-level of satellites, which Walter Cronkite warned could "read your license plate" from space back in 1984, to the micro world of mini-cameras and hidden hackers, snooping and scooping multiply. Remote sensing satellites, encryption breakers, and undetected data duplicators (invisible thieves) further compound new privacy problems. (See Cooper, 1995; CERT, Flaherty, Hausman, Ludlow, xiv-xv)

43) SATELLITE IMAGERY: Not only a specialized case of privacy and surveillance, satellite imagery involves also a complex thicket of legal issues about to whom should the images belong. Whether the press should have access to pictures showing foreign military installations, or whether entrepreneurs can sell images detecting hidden precious metal deposits to the highest bidder become debatable questions. To photograph someone from several miles high is not the same as to photograph him or her in a bathroom, but the hidden nature of the satellite which may also be in "neutral" or "foreign" or contended airspace further mixes issues of privacy, espionage, secrecy, ownership, transborder invasion, and voyeurism simultaneously.

44) SECURITY: Closely linked with issues of privacy, piracy, counterfeiting, bootlegging, viruses, theft, encryption, and related problems, security has become a major "parasite" industry surrounding most new technologies. An "insecure" or leaky cellular phone system may lead to overheard conversations such as have recently led to the publishing of Newt Gingrich ethics violation phone calls or have led to a wife divorcing her husband due to overhearing his cellular conversation with his mistress. Video and audiotape duplication and the piracy of electronic information have become multi-billion dollar industries worldwide. From one ethical perspective it is immoral to be a pirate or thief, yet from another, which features pirate's manifestoes and other liberation documents it is unethical to secure, encrypt, or "own" information which should be freely available in the first place. Subtechnologies and software featuring security become their own industries which, ironically, often only create a breed of craftier and more competitive thieves. (See Barlow, Ludlow, Anonymous Pirate Editorial)

45) SPAMMING: E-mail technology allows individuals and venues to simultaneously send thousands of pieces of junk mail electronically and repetitively without awareness of, let alone sensitivity to, consumer complaint. Excessive spamming not once overloads the unsuspecting reader but can also clog system memory or tax networks and computers. Much of the junk-mail-special offers, contests, bogus ads, dubious claims, chain letters, questionnaire, and product lists -- carries a myriad of other ethical issues (J. Berner)

46) SURROGACY: As agents (#2) become sophisticated and choreographed with other agents, people depend upon them for more than minimal, clerical tasks. Sophisticated networked agents and robots can increasingly replace secretaries, assistants, librarians, and eventually substitute for counselors, sexual partners, confidants, religious leaders, and many other specialists. Indeed, at a much greater level, the Y2K phenomenon suggests that computers are already a surrogate for many forms of thought, work, and administration.

47) TROJAN HORSES: The famous giant Trojan horse contained soldiers inside it who climbed from the horse by night to surprise and destroy their enemies. New technologies may literally function in this manner by transporting viruses, espionage tools, "cookies" which can gather demographic and other data, and other hidden devices. In a more metaphorical sense, it may be argued that several media are themselves Trojan Horses, since they seem to bring hidden values, dependencies, processes, and rhythms to society.

48) VIOLENCE/VISCERAL CONTEXT: Researchers such as Gerbner, Wartella, and Comstock have extensively studied the effects of television violence upon society. New media, including video games, MUDs, and interactive sites allow violent images and actions to become concentrated and packaged. Some games and domains intensify and concertina gruesome violent acts into non-stop serial killing or near genocide. Despite claims of "mere entertainment" and "just fantasy", studies correlate the increased consumption of fictitious violence with the actual proliferation of social violence.

49) VIRTUAL SOCIETY: Often in chat rooms, listservs and MUDs, a "virtual community" is created on-line. When face-to-face communication is regulated by a pseudo-society in which citizens seldom go outside, breath fresh air, or use natural light, human touch is amputated. An e-world seems artificial, if not dehumanized. Increasingly people live in a "wired womb" of relation with pseudo-connection. Virtual sex can lead people to prefer cyber sex partners, who do not become ill or talk back to their own spouses, and virtual society can insulate members from the harsh realities of local ghettoes and distant atrocities.

50) VIRUSES: Although the common perception of a virus is that it can attack or destroy computers, the mega-reality has become that viruses can potentially destroy intelligent society by infecting entire systems, security agents, operations controls, and the defense networks of countries and companies. Viruses can infect with phony information, can transmit to other systems, can destroy immune systems, and sabotage or redirect military systems, and, when fully operant, deliver a knock-out punch to nerve centers as vital as Wall Street, or nuclear monitoring systems. Although security technology such as SATAN (and new super- "Satanic") software is intended as a benign service to detect leaks in one's own systems, in the wrong hands such "leak-busters" become break-in path detectors for virus transmitters, thieves, and saboteurs. Rumors and myths about omniviruses, which could quickly destroy all on-line "civilization" , albeit inflated and over-circulated, have roots in breeding realities.

51) VISUAL MATCHING: Reportedly, a British company called Software System International makes a software called Mandrake. Mandrake can take live video and match it against large data bases of images, ideally to apprehend criminals and identify "troublemakers". However, visual matching also makes it possible for governments and organizations to track the movements of anyone they photograph. Similar technologies allow the trailing of anyone audiotaped, fingerprinted, or implanted with microchips or chemicals.

52) Y2K: Abbreviated Y2K, "the year two thousand problem", refers to shortcuts taken in early computer coding. Such shortcuts may well create malfunctions in all cybersystems which are not "Y2K compliant", when January 1, 2000 arrives. In the worst case scenario millions of people could die and "civilization" could perish. Recently, other dates have been shown as possibilities for massive computer failure. Whatever the outcome of Y2K and similar possible "meltdowns" , it has become obvious that the problem is not so much new media, but rather society's enormous dependency upon them.

ANALYSIS

1. PRECAUTIONS

Before discussing the types of patterns and relationships observable from the list above, it should be noted that such a list will always be incomplete, soon dated, culture-specific, and thus, to some degree, subjective. A scholar, farmer, or executive who lives in a communist, Mennonite, Navaho, nudist, military, or Microsoft (corporate) community would view "ethics" in different ways and might even know of top secret technologies and other issues.

Notations of causation and technological determinism (as in Mumford, Giedion, White, Ellul, McLuhan, Innis, et al) are also extremely problematic. A technology may not cause or be the full reason for what we call an effect or related ethics issue; the invention may simply cause a new corridor for (un)ethical behavior, or exist within an adjacent domain. There are often multiple and unknown catalysts stimulating many seeming and real effects/issues and with new technologies it becomes all the more difficult to find long-term users, research, and thus patterns. There are even schools of thought which suggest that the notion of effects is illusional since forces which create the ripple also created the pond and the pebble i.e. large systems, whether historical, metaphysical, physical, Divine or evolutionary are at work creating local cause/effect illusions.

Moreover, an effect is not identical to an ethical issue. Only when the two become so inextricably linked as with new technologies are they listed together as above. One effect of the new technology--motion detecting satellites (i.e. with more powerful long-distance cameras which automatically zoom in on motion)--might be more aerial espionage or surveillance worldwide. Such an effect (worldwide surveillance) quickly becomes an ethics issue when surveillance is perceived as invasion of privacy. Similar instances of bonded effects/ethics phenomena are dramatic and widespread.

2. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TECHNOLOGIES AND ISSUES

Although one could posit innumerable types of relationships between new communication technologies and the effects/issues they accompany, this research suggests eight primary types of relationships. New technologies seemingly 1) amplify 2) obsolesce 3) create 4) perpetuate 5) retrieve or 6) amplify existing effects or ethical issues. Or the ethical issues and effects reveal 7) a mixture of the effects and issues or 8) the effects and issues are unknown.

To give simple examples, cable, satellites, and internet all amplify the problems of obscenity and indecency by making controversial and criminal (in many cultures) images available to much larger, different, and younger audiences. However, technologies of encryption, scrambling, security (internet nannies and grannies, etc.), struggle to obsolesce such effects/issues within specific technologies, regions, and institutions.

Other technologies, such as the computer terminal or cellular phone, respectively, can create new effects/issues such as radiation poisoning to pregnant operators or (possibly) brain tumors to consumers. Other technologies simply perpetuate or continue existing problems: on-line newspapers perpetuate journalism's problems with the naming of rape victims or unnamed sources.

An interesting feature of some new technologies is that they retrieve or bring back (new versions of) old devices. The new telephone voicemail feature which allows department secretaries to leave spoken announcements on all office telephones retrieves the "town crier" or village messenger. Similarly, the computer virus brings back the "animal saboteur" from medieval days who smuggled animals with contagious diseases into the flocks of enemies.

When invasion of privacy occurs with old technologies such as a flash camera capturing a naked celebrity on the Riviera at sunset such invasion has very different qualities than "cyvacy", which means computer privacy invasion. In many instances the latter is remote, undetectable, and global in scope--entire economies, electric systems, campaign strategies, transportation routings, missile destinations, etc.--can be altered. Privacy invasion is no longer personal, but is transformed to global and impersonal.

Often such relationships between a technology are mixed (e.g. fiber optics may attempt to obsolesce one problem but may in fact create another). Finally, many relationships are unknown. Some research may suggest that televised violence inspires greater real world violence; other research may infer that TV violence offers catharsis to a violent society; while still other research about the effects of TV violence are inconclusive. If the effects of televised violence remain debated and unknown after half a century, how may the effects of children's computer game ultra-violence be conclusively known after half a decade?

3. DOMINANT CHALLENGES TO NEW TECHNOLOGY ETHICS

Researchers about new technology ethics and effects will need to become even more humble than their predecessors. Several factors make a thorough understanding and comprehensive analysis of the field unique. These include:

A. ACCELERATION: The rate of invention and implementation of new communication devices and software, together with their concomitant and unknown effects/issues increases each year.

B. REACTIVE ATMOSPHERE: Ethics problems are usually only studied in depth after serious problems are created. A preventive rather than reactive atmosphere would allow some problems to be anticipated in not prevented.

C. INVISIBILITY: As early as 1984 Siefert reported that most computer crime in Germany alone was undetected and much more unreported It is difficult to study (the effects and issues surrounding) what is undetected and unreported.

D. MULTINATIONAL/MULTI-CULTURAL PROBLEMS: Numerous new communication systems cross national boundaries without passports. Understanding cultures, languages, inter-cultural interaction, national laws, ethical mores and policies becomes crucial.

E. COMBINATION EFFECTS: Noted biochemist Ross Hume Hall discovered that food additives which test positive in isolation, sometimes test negative or toxic when combined. The lack of research about the effects of new technologies is further compounded by the seeming total ignorance about the effects of new technology interaction. If each technology has possible or profound effects, what are the by-products of compound interactivity?

F. PERSONAL DOMAIN: Professional ethics practices and violations are often in the spotlight and considered public domain research. However, when the primary day-to-day violations become unauthorized tape duplication, soft ware copying and internet porn access, all behind closed doors, knowledge about widespread suburban/urban practices become all but off-limits to research. Much abuse is more manifestly covert or "personal".

G. BOUNDARY BLUR: Just as the boundaries between multi-media components become blurred, so do the boundaries of ethics issues which surround them. Issues and effects link not-so-neatly one to another and pole vault into other dimensions and pages of context like hypertext linkage. Seeking to analyze the internet (ethics) becomes like nailing jelly to the wall. "The more shapes change, the more slipperiness remains the same."

These and many other challenges to research dictate that those employing, studying, and creating policy for new technologies will need to study the patterns surrounding the observation of new technology as much as the technologies themselves. As Innis noted, each new technology will also itself influence the way we think and engage. Thus, the very technologies we use to study and communicate technology have influence upon our personal and cultural biases. Our new "spectacles" must be taken into account when we attempt to "read" new social spectacles.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Questions about whether technology controls society or vice versa are questions of dominion. In Peter Kohler's instructive case study about how traditional media companies will employ new technologies, the name Dominion is well-founded as the company name: executives and researchers in companies like Dominion must study and understand potential long range effects and ethical issues associated with their inventions to dominate the technology. Otherwise, as companies like America-On-Line have already demonstrated, problems inherent within the implementation of technology, and problems inherent in forgetting to understand and study the human consequences of new technology implementation will begin to dominate the company and society.

Hence these recommendations follow, not only for executives at "Dominion" (which becomes a metaphor for all businesses seeking to implement new communication products and services), but also for ethicists, researchers, citizens, and students who seek to study new technology effects and ethical issues, whether in the lab, library, field, home or classroom.

l. Far greater PRESEARCH is needed. Presearch occurs prior to the marketing, publicizing, and especially distributing of new technologies. Presearch involves testing technologies with test groups, comparing them with existing and similar tools to look for common and related issues and effects. Presearch welcomes cooperation with consumer groups, scientific experts, government inspectors, and others to consider possible consequences of new technology deployment.

2. INDEPENDENT THINKING AND REFLECTION are essential. One quality of the information age--speed-up--must be countered with deliberate periods of slowdown. Think tanks, conferences, retreats, silent periods, reflection memos, overview sessions, guest speakers, consultant sessions, and especially deliberate individual discipline regarding independent thought are crucial in corporate and institutional cultures overlaid with their own levels of intra-communication smootherage.

3. HUMAN AND HUMANE EMPHASIS are crucial. When America- On-Line emphasized growth over customer service, a signal was sent to customers that greed, not customer relations, was the raison d'etre for their "provider" (an inaccurate descriptor). As researchers study the effects of technologies upon human beings, they are not only acting within the interest of societies health and welfare, but also within their own corporate interest by preventing law suits, low morale, customer dissatisfaction, and thus a lack of dominion.

4. DEPTH ANALYSIS must penetrate well beyond the conventional wisdom. Recently a field representative for a major multinational company tried to sell new communication technologies in the Pacific. Pointing out how locals could receive help from medical information on-line, she said "these services will help you people combat disease". Regrettably, she had failed to perceive that it was the very people who brought new technologies into her culture years ago who had imported diseases in the first place. To the locals, the technology representatives and the technologies were themselves disease carriers. Similarly, journalists who have writing scathing editorials about the destruction of forests and consequent depletion of oxygen, are themselves adding to deforestation with the publication of massive, largely unread papers. Thought must be systemic, holistic, and multi-disciplinary, taking the viewer himself and his context into account.

5. ETHICISTS, POLICY PROVIDERS, LEGISLATORS et al must shift gears. The notion that the internet, World Wide Web and related phenomena are trends which will soon be passé has been widely held by scholars, corporate giants (dinosaurs), and analysts who wish to stay in second gear. However, unless lawmakers, policy experts, governments, researchers, and ethicists, not to mention informed citizens, keep pace with entrepreneurs, inventors, and brushfire products, etc., then profits and commercialism soon replace social welfare and civic balance as national priorities.

6. TOLERANCE OF UNCERTAINTY AND AMBIGUITY: Despite the human tendency to want closure, those studying new technologies must be especially patient, tolerant of ambiguity, and open-minded. Especially with new products, inventions, and services conclusive research is not immediate, and often conflicting and complex. Those researching and employing new technologies require greater flexibility and versatility. Too many factors, variables, and implements make conceptual closure about definitive effects and issues premature.

7. SYSTEMIZATION: Nevertheless, despite the need to stay open, some ability to perceive patterns and problems is crucial. Books such as Pavlik's New Media Technology are helpful in charting and organizing what is know about the new implements. Indeed this essay is an attempt to list what is known about the related social conundrum. Bibliographies, courses, workshops, conferences, websites, and published empirical research may further help reduce ignorance if not bring complete knowledge.

8. COMMIT TO MANN AND HEIDEGGER: Immersed in a sea of challenges and often inhumane effects, the idealist is often summoned to follow Horace Mann's dictum: "Be afraid to die until you have won some fight for humanity". In this regard there are now more windmills with which to tilt, and more runaway technologies to corral. However, Heidegger's observation "that which is slipping away is thinking" rings equally loud. Sometimes the acts of tilting and corralling do more harm than good, create more problems than they solve. If crusading, counterbalancing, and regulating are ever required, they must be equally tempered with educating, studying, reflecting, and some wise balance between extremes.

SUMMARY #1 -- EFFECTS

The great Swiss scientist Hans Jenny noted in his study of cymatics, the science of vibration and oscillation, that ripples and structures respond to and are shaped by specific frequencies of sound and signal. If each technology is seen as carrying a new, signature oscillation or vibration within it, we will better understand how it ripples throughout society causing both excitement and disturbance.

Understanding effects and ethical issues accompanying new technologies includes studying a myriad of overt and submerged social, cultural, and institutional factors within corporations and countries. Such understanding also involves studying the "cymatics" or signature wavelength(s) of each technology, and of the context (cultures, domains) within which it interacts.

To have dominion over such new technologies and to predict at least some of their effects, it is important to 1) recognize 2) systematize (cf. alphabetize), 3) analyze and 4) tentatively evaluate not only technologies but their relationships to corporations, individuals, and societies. Despite the great distance of that journey, this author wishes to begin it with this single step.

SUMMARY #2 -- SPEED-UP

A step taken atop a speeding train is far more shaky than a step within one's living room. Research conducted in the Y2K millennium seems destined to encounter acceleration in the rate of new media adaptation or implementation. If history is an accurate indicator, each new medium will have a shorter half life, and each will seem part of an increasingly dizzying blur of metamorphosis to the average consumer.

Ironically, what is necessary in an age of speed-up is to slow down. Fingerprints on the murder weapon and other clues will not be found by a detective pursuing the get-away car. To slow down is to observe, take stock, recognize patterns, critique and suggest answers. To slow down is to avoid short-cuts. Without short-cuts, society would not be forced to face problems such as Y2K in the first place.

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VIDEO BIBLIOGRAPHY

 THE CAMBRIDGE, MIT, CFP VIDEO SERIES.

 Produced and Distributed by:
 Sweet Pea Communications
 P.O. Box 912
 Topanga, CA 90290
 cfpvideo@earthlink.net
 310-455-3915

1.  "Before the Court: Unauthorized Encryption"

2.  "Casino Economics & The New World Disorder"

3.  "Censorship and Content Control on the Internet"

4.  "China and the Internet"

5.  "The Communications Decency Act of 1996"

6.  "Copyright and Freedom of Expression on the Internet"

7.  "Electronic Money"

8.  "Freedom and Privacy in the Information Society: A European 			
Perspective

9.  "International Developments in Cryptography"

10. "Internet Service Providers"

11 "Limiting Online Speech On Campus"

12 "Mass Communication vs. Mass Media"

13 "Privacy and the global Information Infrastructure"


THE WASHINGTON D.C. CFP VIDEO SERIES

1."Computer surveillance in the Workplace"

2. "Cryptography, Privacy and National Security"

3. "DNA Data Banks"

4.  "Ethics, Morality, and Criminatily Online"

5. "For Sale: Government Information"

6. "Freedom in Cyberspace"

7.  "Free Speech and the Public Telephone Network"

8.  "Privacy and Intellectual Freedom in the Digital Library"

9.  "Private Collection of Personal Information"

10. "Public Policy for the 21st Century"

11. "The Truly Malicious Hacker"

12. Who Logs On?"


THE SAN FRANCISCO CFP VIDEO SERIES

1.  "Access to Government Information"

2.  "Computer Based Surveillance of Individuals"

3.  " Computer Ethics and Education"

4.  "The Constitution in Cyberspace"

5.  "Electronic Speech, Press and Assembly

6.  "Legislation and Regulation"

7.  "Law Enforcement and Civil Liberties"

8.  "Law Enforcement Practices and Problems"

9,  " NCIC 2000: Security Capabilities, Privacy and Integrity"

10. "Network Environments of the Future"

11. "Personal Information and Privacy -I"

12. "Personal Information and Privacy - II"

13. "Personal Privacy: International Perspectives and Impacts"

14. "Trends in Computers and Networks"

15. "Where Do We Go From Here?"

 The Video McLuhan.   Directed by Stephanie McLuhan, Toronto, 1996.


Babiole, Cecile. (1993). Virtual Reality. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

(1995). The Internet: Cyberhate and Freedom of Speech.  New Dimension Media.

Koughan, Martin. (1995). High Stakes in Cyberspace. Alexandria., VA: PBS Video.

O'Rourke, Dennis. (1987). Yap . .  How Did You Know We'd Like TV? Direct Cinema Limited.



Internet Bibliography

1.  http://nytsyn.com/live/latest/029_012997_142209_17312.html
2.  http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu.earthnews
3.  http://w3web.org.  Source: Clerk Donoghue, "Access in a Digital Age"
The New York Times  (1995).
4.  http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/giftfire/giftflyer.html
5.  http://www. freedomforum.org/technology/1998



CONFERENCES

"Recent Hot First Amendment Cases: Richard Jewell, when Ethics and Law
Clash."  Communications Law Institute.  Penn State University, May 8-9,
1997.

"Violence and Indecency on Broadcast Television and the Internet."
Communications Law Institute.  Penn State University, May 8-9, 1997.